編集者 アダム・カードス

Over the last few decades, there has been a trend towards critical thinking education and education for discovery learning. The world’s education system seeks ways to allow students to think flexibly and independently, but for many, learning by rote memorization is outdated and focused on rote memorization. Educational law believes that learners can only improve by simply repeating information, not the ability to handle and assemble information well.

If Program for International Student Assessment is not useful for problem solving and complex calculations, countries such as South Korea, Singapore, China, and Japan where Program for International Student Assessment is more dominant in mathematics and science Why do you get the highest score in the PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) in the field?

Infographic: Samuel Woo / TODAY

At first glance, rote memorization and critical thinking seem to be two separate and conflicting learning methods, but in fact, surprisingly, there is a connection between the two. It is easy to understand when considering working memory.

Working memory is similar to short-term memory because it is temporary in nature, but unlike short-term memory, which stores short-term information, it allows information to be manipulated and processed. It’s like a work space in your head, like a desk where you can store information about your work. In other words, working memory is indispensable for thinking logically.

The relationship between critical thinking ability and working memory is clear.

Good working memory improves the performance of intellectual functions related to information. Increases problem-solving ability and enables more complicated calculations. By training problem-solving skills and critical thinking skills, you will be able to acquire strategies for thinking through problems, and you will be able to demonstrate these abilities more. However, it is not expected that the working memory capacity will actually increase.

How does rote memorization affect working memory?

The answer is a bit surprising. Earlier, I compared working memory to a workspace, but if the workspace is small, the amount of information processed is also limited. When rote memorization is used for simple tasks such as multiplication tables, a large workspace is In this way, by memorizing and automating basic mathematical knowledge, it can be used to reduce the working memory space used and to solve other complex problems. Not required to process information. Then, the remaining space can be used for processing other information .

How is this related to language learning?

In cognitive theory of second language acquisition, the brain is regarded as a computer-like thing. Language processing puts some strain on the processing power of the brain, both in understanding what is written and in communicating verbally. The more you practice a word in another language, the more it will be automated, and as a result, you can reduce the processing load and leave the processing power of other new words.

Think of the brain as a computer

Therefore, rote memorization of vocabulary and grammatical structures is an effective method for language acquisition. But that is only part of the big picture.

Memory is fluid and dynamic. Once you remember the information and remember it a few minutes later, it’s already in long-term memory, but that doesn’t mean you’ll never forget it. Certainly, repeated review makes information solid as long- term memory, but when considered within the framework of cognitive knowledge, it is not strongly related to other information in the brain. Therefore, the information cannot be easily retrieved and it is difficult to use it voluntarily.

In using the language, information needs to be extracted voluntarily. When speaking or listening in another language, the brain is constantly eliciting linguistic knowledge. This action is cognitively burdensome. On the other hand, memorized and reviewed words can take several seconds to retrieve information using information processing in the brain.

It is important to use language in different contexts in order for linguistic knowledge to form stronger connections in the brain and to strengthen the neural pathways that elicit them. By using linguistic knowledge while actively using the functions of the brain, it is possible to develop its neural pathways. For this reason, linguistic knowledge that needs to be remembered many times to achieve an end, such as understanding signs or asking for help, can be quickly extracted without any special effort. Become.

The neural network is built more strongly, especially when cognitively required and recalls language. If the learner does not need to think deeply, he can only build as much of the ties that can be obtained through rote memorization.

Correct fusion

The debate over the benefits of rote memorization will probably continue, but many educational policy makers are best suited for curriculums that focus solely on memorization or problem-solving without a solid foundation. We are beginning to take the position that we will not get results. The ideal situation, then, is to combine the two approaches. In language learning, memorizing vocabulary will definitely increase your knowledge of vocabulary . In particular, it can speed up the language learning process by combining it with more meaningful forms of study, such as extensive reading, studying some subject through another language, or doing interesting work with classmates.

ゲスト寄稿者 アン・ロビンソン

こんにちは！ 私の名前はアン・ロビンソンです。 スペインの北海岸のカンタブリアに住んでいます。 私は教師であり、ケンブリッジ大学英語検定機構の教師トレーナーでもあり、また、著者としてケンブリッジ大学出版の『Fun for Starters』『Fun for Movers』『Fun for Flyers』 『Fun Skills 3』『Fun Skills 5』というコースブックを執筆しています。

ケンブリッジ英語検定ヤングラーナーズとの関わり

1997年のケンブリッジ英語検定ヤングラーナーズ開始以来、私は地元のスペイン、カンタブリアでこのテストを実施してきました。そしてこのテストが学習と教育にもたらした好影響を数多く見てきました。 そのいくつかをここでお話ししたいと思います。

ケンブリッジ英語検定ヤングラーナーズとは？

この試験には、Pre-A1スターターズ、A1ムーバーズ、A2フライヤーズの3つのレベルがあります。名前からわかるように、CEFR（英語力を示す国際指標）に準拠した試験です。小学校１年生～６年生の学習者対象に作られていますが、受検者は少し若かったり、年上だったりすることもあります。 世界中の学習者に受けてもらって、学びを楽しくすることを目指しています。試験自体が楽しいのです！英文は、カラフルで魅力的なイラストがたくさん添えられた面白いストーリーで、問題はクイズのように自然と夢中になって考えられる楽しいタスクばかり！試験日が楽しみな日になります！

生徒は何を学んでいますか？ 彼らは次にどこに行くことができますか?

学校、学習者、保護者や教師にとっては、英語の授業がどこに向かっているのか知ることは容易ではありません。子どもたちは、まずanimals, family, homeなどのトピックの単語を習い、その後徐々に語彙を増やしながら言語力を身につけていきます。同じトピック(animals, family, home等)が毎年シラバスに表示されることも多いと思います。これはどういうことでしょうか。学習者にどのような成長がありますか。彼らは同じことを何度も学んでいるのでしょうか？

Pre-A1スターターズ、A1ムーバーズ、A2フライヤーズのテーマ別語彙リスト（Starters, Movers and Flyers Word Listの38〜43ページ）では、同じトピック内でどのように語彙がレベルUPするのかわかります。レベルが上がるにつれて、単語はより「抽象的」になります（たとえば、「願い」や「夢」という単語をピクチャーカードで表すことはできませんよね？）この単語リストをシラバスやコースブックと比較することで、使用している教材が明確に学習進歩のあるものかどうかの確認が可能です。

他に役立つ教材として、Pre-A1スターターズ、A1ムーバーズ、およびA2フライヤーズテストのGrammar and Structures lists（文法及び構文リスト）があります。これらは、Cambridge Assessment（ケンブリッジアセスメント）公式ウェブサイトのHandbook for Teachers（教師向けハンドブック）中に、各タスクの内訳と教師が生徒に伝えるアドバイスとともに記載されています。

Pre-A1スターターズ、A1ムーバーズ、A2フライヤーズの試験内容は？

明確な文法のシラバスはもちろん便利なのですが、試験内容を理解するための最良の方法は、Sample Papers/サンプルテストを確認することです。ケンブリッジアセスメントウェブサイトのResources for Teachers（教師用資料ページ）にて、各レベルで2パターンずつ、リスニングテストの音声ファイルも備えたサンプルテストがご活用いただけます。

サンプルテストからわかるように、リスニング、リーディング＆ライティング（1つのテスト冊子）、スピーキングの4技能全てが各レベルでテストされます。リスニングパート4など一部のタスクは、3レベル全てで行われますが、タスクは同じように見えても、小さな変更（例えば、問われる語句など）により、A2フライヤーズではPre-A1スターターズよりも当然ぐっと難度が増しています。

スピーキングテストの動画は、ひと目でテストの流れがつかめる優れものです。生徒たちもこれを見ると、この様子なら自分もうまく話せそうだ、と本当にやる気スイッチが入るようです。Resources for Teachersにもスピーキングテストに関する解説があります。

テスト結果については？

Pre-A1スターターズ、A1ムーバーズ、またはA2フライヤーズのリスニング、リーディング＆ライティング、スピーキングの３つのテストを受けたすべての受検者に、成績証書が授与されます。合格も不合格もありません。成績は、スキルごとに、正解した問いの数に応じて、1〜5枚のケンブリッジ大学の紋章で記されます。また、各スキルを詳しく説明するStatement of Results/成績レポートを受け取ります。さらなる高みに向けての学習アドバイスも記載されています。A1ムーバーズの証明書とStatement of Resultsに関する詳細情報はこちらでご確認ください。

私には、20年以上この試験の実施に携わってきた経験がありますが、生徒たちが試験とともに「成長」するのを目の当たりにして、向上心や意欲を高めてくれるこの試験の影響力を実感しています。

ケンブリッジ英語検定を軸に学んだ生徒は英語でコミュニケーションを取ることや、自分がどれだけ英語がわかるかを示すことに自信を持っています。保護者の方々は、子どもたちが何を学び、どのレベルにいるのか、世界が認める資格検定でクリアにわかることを高く評価してくださいます。先生方は、ケンブリッジは楽しい上にやる気UP効果もあること、ケンブリッジアセスメントウェブサイトのResources for Teachers とWorld of Funにサポート資料が豊富にあること等から、このテスト対策学習を気に入ってくださっています。

そして生徒たちが上のレベルの試験を受ける時には、それまでに得た知識と経験により、恐れや不安なくチャレンジできる態勢ができていて、確かな学びが実現します。

ゲスト寄稿者 明治学院大学　チャールズ・ブラウン教授

The New Dolch List (NDL) is probably the most important and newest word list for children learning English as a second foreign language in recent decades. So this list is part of a big project called the New General Service List (NGSL, Browne 2013) . Introduced In 2013, NGSL Is A Word List Of The Most Important Words From The Corpus For Adult Learners Of English As A Second Foreign Language. There Are More Than 600,000 English Words, Of Which About 30,000 Are Known To Adult Native English Speakers. With 2,800 words, NGSL covers 92% of the words used in common English books, newspapers and magazines, and a higher percentage of the words used in television and movies.

A few years later, we published a list of each word based on the corpus for Business English, Academic English, TOEIC, Fitness English, and Colloquial English. Each list covers the words in the highest percentage of the word list in the field (about) )) 92-99%) and can be downloaded for free, just like any other word list we have created. .. According to the copyright law, you are free to use and edit as long as the citation source is specified.

We also publish many resources and apps online to help English learners, teachers, researchers and material developers take advantage of our wordlist. These can be accessed from the URL above.

NGSL is very effective for adult learners of English, but it is quite different from the kind of English that children learn English learners. So that children’s second language learners can use EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learning materials and interact with other learners as well as children’s programs and picture books., Announced the New Dolch List (NDL) in an attempt to create a reliable and valid list of most frequently used words based on the corpus.

The NDL is an update to the original Dolch List, a word list published by Edward William Dolch in 1936. The Dolci List contains 95 important nouns, along with 220 words of “sightwords” that need to be quickly and effortlessly recognized in order to read English fluently, in school textbooks and libraries. About 70% of the words used in books, newspapers and magazines are said to be sight words. It’s been a long time since the Dolci List was announced, but it’s used as a memorized word list in American elementary schools, and ESL (English as a Second Foreign Language) and EFL (Foreign Language) all over the world. (English) Used in teaching materials.

However, the quality of a word list depends on the corpus it is based on. The General Service List (GSL), published in 1953, was updated by the New General Service List (NGSL, Browne 2013), but the Dolci List, published In 1936, is also a word list based on old information. Has often been argued. The 90-year-old Dolci List is much older, as English is changing and evolving over time.

The original Dolci List was created based on a corpus and word list devised by Takeshi for native English speakers attending English-speaking elementary schools, but now English is the world’s second language. Taught and learned in, the original Dolci List is not suitable for those needs. EFL (English as a Second Ordinance) learners get less input and have limited sources of information than those who live in English-speaking countries. Therefore, EFL textbooks, children’s songs, textbooks, and television shows are the primary sources of information for most EFL learners.So, to create a list of the most important words for EFL learners around the world, with the hope that it will be valuable to EFL teachers, students, textbook authors, and educational software developers. I made a corpus of EFL teaching materials. The new Dolci List is based on a 2.5 million word corpus carefully selected from reading and listening materials for children, as shown in the table below.

The original Dolci list (220 words for sightwords and 95 words for nouns), which contains 315 words, was said to cover 70% (there seems to be no experimental paper to support this claim). However, when I look at the new Dolci List, at the stage of the 315th word, it is already 78%, which is beyond the coverage of the Dolci List.

Unfortunately, according to a second language acquisition study, 78% is not enough. Teachers often teach students to infer meaning from context when they encounter a word they don’t know in a sentence, rather than stopping and looking up the meaning in a dictionary . However, Studies On Vocabulary Thresholds Show That Learners Need To Know At Least 90 Pasento Of The Page, Preferably 95-98 Pasento Of The Words, In Order To Be Able To Infer The Meaning Of ,,, unknown unknown from, unknown unknown from From,, unknown unknown from, unknown unknown from From From Words From The Context (Laufer). 1992).

Therefore, to help students, schools and teachers reach a level where they can read unknown words and easily guess their meaning, the new Dolch List is a 90 of words used in EFL materials for young learners. Expanded to 875 words that can cover%.

You can download the new Dolci List word list from the following URL:

This website provides word lists in various formats, such as by headwords classified for educational purposes and by headwords classified for research purposes, and also includes simple English definitions for all words. I am.In the near future, free vocabulary websites such as Quizlet. com, Memrise.com, Word-Learner (the vocabulary app we created) and our free online stepwise text editing tools (Online Graded Text Editing Tool (OGTE) etc. will also be added to the new Dolci list.

References (abbreviated below)

寄稿者 マルコム　ハーディング

This is the first in a series that discusses the effects of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages ​​(CEFR), an international language proficiency index, and the new Foreign Language Evaluation (FLA / New ESL Test), which will join the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) from 2025. This is an article.

PISA is a three-yearly global Student Assessment that currently focuses on the academic achievement of 15-year-old students in mathematical and scientific literacy and reading comprehension (in their native language). I will. However, in 2025, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) will introduce a new Foreign Language Evaluation (FLA) into PISA . This FLA is first written in English and consists of an assessment of the three main skills (reading, listening and speaking). The FLA aims to The FLA test is developed by the Cambridge University English Examination Organization and is CEFR compliant. Improve language education by providing international comparisons, national diagnostics, and in-class policies and practices. In 2022, Countries Will Decide Whether To Take The English Test At The Field Trials. The Tests Currently Under Development Are For CEFR Levels A1 To C1 (Eiken 3Rd To 1St Grade And Above).

The overall purpose of this new FLA is to provide a system for comparing language learning around the world. This is a mission statement by Hanan Khalifa, Director of the Educational Transformation and Impact Division of the Cambridge University English Examination Organization. “It is important to provide appropriate and systematic teaching methods for language education in schools that help to formulate educational policies at the national and regional levels, “he said.

The new FLA is a great opportunity to showcase the language skills . So far, Japan has achieved very good results in the Program for International Student Assessment PISA, and has shown a very high level of achievement in scientific literacy, mathematical literacy, and reading comprehension . This New Test Will Allow Japan To Demonstrate Its Position As A World Leader . Of Japanese Students And Show Why Japan Is An Internationally Important Country. The Intellectual, Economic And Cognitive Benefits Of Language Learning Are Essential To The Appeal Of All Countries On A Global scale. in the future. There are many English experts in Japan, and they are in a position to be recognized as a model education by using their knowledge for future education policy.

To support the development and growth of education policy, PISA conducts questionnaires. The first test period questionnaire will focus on “using English in IT lessons” and “using the language of study (English) to teach other subjects”. This will be a great opportunity to show the competence of Japanese English professionals and the model efforts of other countries on how to implement the new system on a nationwide scale.